Which Of The Following Were Important Achievements Of...

Which of the events would be the most efficient? 3)I suppose that car free day will be the most difficult to organise and take part in, because most of the people totally depend on their own transport and they can't spend a day without it.Now that you have read Lesson 3 and have completed the exercises, you should be ready to take the self-assessment quiz. This quiz is designed to help you assess how well you have learned the content of this lesson. You may refer to the lesson text whenever you are unsure of the answer.This sample paper includes a list of 40 most important ISTQB Foundation level exam questions along with the answers to help you clear the exam successfully 2 Which of the following is likely to benefit most from the use of test tools providing test capture and replay facilities? a) Regression testing b)...Put the paragraphs of the argumentative essay in the correct order.Which of the following studies falls under the discipline of biology? a. examining the speed and direction of a car b. looking at how carbon atoms join together c. examining tree rings to see how fast the tree Yes: Montmorillonite (weathered volcanic ash) can increase the rate of protocell formation.

CDC | Principles of Epidemiology | Lesson 3 - Quiz

Protocells are a collection of lipids that are self organized and thought of as helping in the origin of life. human resource is important because of the following reasons; 1. improves the quality of life, 2. important to the society, 3. providing direction for the people who work in the organization which is...31) Which of the following statements about inclusion is true? A) Most parents of students with disabilities support inclusion. Or do you know how to improve StudyLib UI? Feel free to send suggestions. Its very important for us!In which section of the article are the following mentioned? 47 a belief that a certain development has been of particular use to scientists. The latter cries out for an informal system of quality control. The internet levels the playing fields between researchers in major centres and those in relative isolation.Darwin's finches by John Gould. Evolutionary biology portal. Category. Related topics. v. t. e. A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered...

ISTQB Foundation level exam Sample paper - I

A) The collision must involve a sufficient amount of energy, provided from the motion of the particles, to overcome the activation energy. C) The relative orientation of the particles has an effect only if the kinetic energy of the particles is below some minimum value.3. Which of the following are reasons we create conceptual models? It facilitates discussion. A picture is worth a thousand words. It forms important ideal system documentation. It takes into account government regulations and laws It forms a sound basis for physical database design All of the above.Everything else remaining constant, which of the following will be observed in this economy? a. Annual production in the economy will remain unaffected b. The short-run aggregate supply curve will move to the left c. The current profits of the firm will rise d...Q: Which of the following statements about Geovishap Hatchlings is false? B—Geovishaps are immune to GEO Damage. B—Using a wind glider to glide above the cracked platforms will cause characters to take DMG. Q: Which of the following Ley Line Disorders has not featured in a Domain?Take the quiz to test your understanding of the key concepts covered in the chapter. Try testing yourself before you read the chapter to see where your strengths and weaknesses are, then test yourself again once you've read the chapter to see how well you've understood.Tip: Click on each link...

Jump to navigation Jump to search Not to be perplexed with Proteobacteria. See also: Evolution of cells and Abiogenesis Part of a sequence onEvolutionary biologyDarwin's finches by means of John Gould Key topics Introduction to evolution Common descent Evidence Processes and results Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural variety Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Coextinction Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction Natural history Origin of existence History of existence Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction match History of evolutionary idea Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo-devo Current analysis History of speciation History of paleontology (timeline) Fields and applications Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary sport idea Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medication Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Speciation experiments Sociobiology Systematics Universal Darwinism Social implications Evolution as reality and theory Social effects Creation–evolution controversy Objections to evolution Level of strengthen Evolutionary biology portal Category Related topicsvte

A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical assortment of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone toward the beginning of lifestyles.[1][2] A central question in evolution is how easy protocells first arose and the way they might fluctuate in reproductive output, thus enabling the accumulation of novel biological emergences over the years, i.e. biological evolution. Although a functional protocell has not yet been accomplished in a laboratory environment, the purpose to grasp the process seems smartly within succeed in.[3][4][5][6]

Overview

Compartmentalization was important in the origins of lifestyles. Membranes shape enclosed compartments that are cut loose the external atmosphere, thus offering the cellular with functionally specialised aqueous areas. As the lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to maximum hydrophilic molecules (dissolved by means of water), cells have membrane transport-systems that succeed in the import of nutritive molecules as well as the export of waste.[7] It could be very challenging to build protocells from molecular assemblies. An important step on this challenge is the fulfillment of vesicle dynamics which can be related to cellular purposes, reminiscent of membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, the usage of amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, a lot of chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the substances of life. Of those elements, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular meeting to cellular existence.[8][9] A step from vesicle towards protocell might be to expand self-reproducing vesicles coupled with the metabolic system.[10]

Another option to the perception of a protocell considerations the term "chemoton" (quick for 'chemical automaton') which refers to an summary model for the fundamental unit of lifestyles presented through Hungarian theoretical biologist Tibor Gánti.[11] It is the oldest known computational summary of a protocell. Gánti conceived the basic idea in 1952 and formulated the idea in 1971 in his e-book The Principles of Life (initially written in Hungarian, and translated to English simplest in 2003). He surmised the chemoton as the authentic ancestor of all organisms, or the ultimate common not unusual ancestor.[12]

The fundamental assumption of the chemoton fashion is that existence should essentially and necessarily have 3 houses: metabolism, self-replication, and a bilipid membrane.[13] The metabolic and replication purposes together shape an autocatalytic subsystem important for the fundamental purposes of existence, and a membrane encloses this subsystem to split it from the surrounding setting. Therefore, any machine having such properties may be considered alive, and it'll be subjected to natural variety and include a self-sustaining mobile information. Some consider this type an important contribution to origin of existence because it supplies a philosophy of evolutionary devices.[14]

Selectivity for compartmentalization

The three main buildings phospholipids form in answer; the liposome (a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer.

Self-assembled vesicles are essential elements of primitive cells.[1] The 2d law of thermodynamics calls for that the universe transfer in a route in which disorder (or entropy) increases, yet lifestyles is prominent by way of its nice level of organization. Therefore, a boundary is had to separate lifestyles processes from non-living topic.[15] The cellular membrane is the only mobile construction that is found in all of the cells of all of the organisms on Earth.[16]

Researchers Irene A. Chen and Jack W. Szostak (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009) among others, demonstrated that straightforward physicochemical homes of elementary protocells can provide upward thrust to more practical conceptual analogues of crucial mobile behaviors, including primitive bureaucracy of Darwinian competition and energy storage. Such cooperative interactions between the membrane and encapsulated contents could a great deal simplify the transition from replicating molecules to true cells.[4] Competition for membrane molecules would like stabilized membranes, suggesting a selective merit for the evolution of cross-linked fatty acids and even the phospholipids of these days.[4] This micro-encapsulation allowed for metabolism within the membrane, trade of small molecules and prevention of passage of massive ingredients across it.[17] The main advantages of encapsulation come with greater solubility of the shipment and growing energy in the shape of chemical gradient. Energy is thus incessantly mentioned to be saved by cells in the buildings of molecules of ingredients similar to carbohydrates (together with sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release power when chemically mixed with oxygen right through mobile breathing.[18][19]

Energy gradient

A March 2014 learn about via NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated a novel method to study the origins of life: gasoline cells.[20] Fuel cells are very similar to organic cells in that electrons are also transferred to and from molecules. In both instances, this results in electricity and tool. The find out about states that one important issue was that the Earth provides electrical power at the seafloor. "This energy could have kick-started life and could have sustained life after it arose. Now, we have a way of testing different materials and environments that could have helped life arise not just on Earth, but possibly on Mars, Europa and other places in the Solar System."[20]

Vesicles, micelles and membraneless droplets

Scheme of a micelle spontaneously formed by way of phospholipids in an aqueous answer

When phospholipids are positioned in water, the molecules spontaneously prepare such that the tails are shielded from the water, leading to the formation of membrane constructions similar to bilayers, vesicles, and micelles.[2] In fashionable cells, vesicles are all for metabolism, delivery, buoyancy control,[21] and enzyme garage. They can also act as natural chemical response chambers. A standard vesicle or micelle in aqueous answer bureaucracy an mixture with the hydrophilic "head" areas involved with surrounding solvent, sequestering the hydrophobic single-tail regions in the micelle centre. This segment is brought about via the packing conduct of single-tail lipids in a bilayer. Although the protocellular self-assembly process that spontaneously form lipid monolayer vesicles and micelles in nature resemble the kinds of primordial vesicles or protocells that would possibly have existed at the starting of evolution, they are not as subtle as the bilayer membranes of nowadays's dwelling organisms.[22]

Rather than being made up of phospholipids, on the other hand, early membranes will have shaped from monolayers or bilayers of fatty acids, which will have shaped more readily in a prebiotic surroundings.[23] Fatty acids have been synthesized in laboratories below a wide range of prebiotic stipulations and feature been discovered on meteorites, suggesting their natural synthesis in nature.[4]

Oleic acid vesicles represent just right fashions of membrane protocells that will have existed in prebiotic times.[24]

Electrostatic interactions triggered via quick, undoubtedly charged, hydrophobic peptides containing 7 amino acids in duration or fewer, can attach RNA to a vesicle membrane, the basic cellular membrane.[25][26]

Geothermal ponds and clay This fluid lipid bilayer move phase is made up completely of phosphatidylcholine.

Scientists have advised that existence began in hydrothermal vents in the deep sea, but a 2012 study means that inland swimming pools of condensed and cooled geothermal vapor have the very best characteristics for the foundation of life.[27] The conclusion is based totally basically on the chemistry of trendy cells, where the cytoplasm is wealthy in potassium, zinc, manganese, and phosphate ions, which aren't common in marine environments. Such conditions, the researchers argue, are found simplest where sizzling hydrothermal fluid brings the ions to the floor—puts corresponding to geysers, mud pots, fumaroles and other geothermal options. Within those fuming and bubbling basins, water encumbered with zinc and manganese ions can have accumulated, cooled and condensed in shallow pools.[27]

Another learn about in the 1990s confirmed that montmorillonite clay can lend a hand create RNA chains of as many as 50 nucleotides joined together spontaneously right into a unmarried RNA molecule.[5] Later, in 2002, it was discovered that via including montmorillonite to a solution of fatty acid micelles (lipid spheres), the clay sped up the charge of vesicle formation 100-fold.[5]

Research has proven that some minerals can catalyze the stepwise formation of hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids from hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases—gases that may were launched from hydrothermal vents or geysers. Fatty acids of quite a lot of lengths are in the end released into the surrounding water,[23] but vesicle formation calls for a higher focus of fatty acids, so it is strongly recommended that protocell formation began at land-bound hydrothermal vents akin to geysers, mud pots, fumaroles and other geothermal options where water evaporates and concentrates the solute.[5][28][29]

Montmorillonite bubbles

Another crew means that primitive cells would possibly have formed inside inorganic clay microcompartments, which can provide an excellent container for the synthesis and compartmentalization of complicated natural molecules.[30] Clay-armored bubbles form naturally when debris of montmorillonite clay acquire on the outer surface of air bubbles under water. This creates a semi permeable vesicle from fabrics which can be readily available in the setting. The authors observation that montmorillonite is understood to serve as a chemical catalyst, encouraging lipids to shape membranes and single nucleotides to enroll in into strands of RNA. Primitive reproduction may also be envisioned when the clay bubbles burst, liberating the lipid membrane-bound product into the surrounding medium.[30]

Membraneless droplets

Another approach to form primitive compartments that may result in the formation of a protocell is polyesters membraneless buildings that experience the talent to host biochemicals (proteins and RNA) and/or scaffold the assemblies of lipids round them.[31][32] While those droplets are leaky towards genetic materials, this leakiness could have facilitated the progenote hypothesis.[33]

Membrane transport Schematic appearing two imaginable conformations of the lipids at the edge of a pore. In the most sensible symbol the lipids have not rearranged, so the pore wall is hydrophobic. In the backside symbol some of the lipid heads have bent over, so the pore wall is hydrophilic.

For cellular organisms, the transport of particular molecules across compartmentalizing membrane boundaries is essential with a view to trade content material with their surroundings and with different folks. For instance, content alternate between people permits horizontal gene switch, an important factor in the evolution of mobile life.[34] While trendy cells can rely on sophisticated protein machineries to catalyze those the most important processes, protocells must have achieved this the usage of more easy mechanisms.

Protocells composed of fatty acids[35] would were ready to simply alternate small molecules and ions with their setting.[1] Membranes consisting of fatty acids have a relatively prime permeability to molecules equivalent to nucleoside monophosphate (NMP), nucleoside diphosphate (NDP), and nucleoside triphosphate (NTP), and might face up to millimolar concentrations of Mg2+.[36]Osmotic drive too can play an important role relating to this passive membrane shipping.[1]

Environmental results had been prompt to cause prerequisites underneath which a shipping of better molecules, such as DNA and RNA, across the membranes of protocells is possible. For instance, it has been proposed that electroporation attributable to lightning moves may enable such shipping.[37] Electroporation is the speedy building up in bilayer permeability caused through the application of a big artificial electrical box throughout the membrane. During electroporation, the lipid molecules in the membrane shift place, opening up a pore (hollow) that acts as a conductive pathway through which hydrophobic molecules like nucleic acids can pass the lipid bilayer.[38] A similar switch of content throughout protocells and with the surrounding answer can also be brought about by way of freezing and next thawing. This could, for instance, occur in an environment in which day and night time cycles purpose recurrent freezing. Laboratory experiments have proven that such stipulations allow an exchange of genetic information between populations of protocells.[39] This may also be explained through the incontrovertible fact that membranes are highly permeable at temperatures moderately underneath their segment transition temperature. If this point is reached during the freeze-thaw cycle, even massive and highly charged molecules can briefly move the protocell membrane.

Some molecules or debris are too massive or too hydrophilic to pass through a lipid bilayer even below those conditions, however can also be moved across the membrane via fusion or budding of vesicles,[40] events which have also been seen for freeze-thaw cycles.[41] This may ultimately have ended in mechanisms that facilitate motion of molecules to the inside of of the protocell (endocytosis) or to unlock its contents into the extracellular space (exocytosis).[40]

Artificial models

Langmuir-Blodgett deposition Main article: Langmuir–Blodgett film

Starting with a technique recurrently used to deposit molecules on a solid floor, Langmuir–Blodgett deposition, scientists are able to collect phospholipid membranes of arbitrary complexity layer by layer.[42][43] These synthetic phospholipid membranes fortify functional insertion both of purified and of in situ expressed membrane proteins.[43] The methodology may lend a hand astrobiologists understand how the first dwelling cells originated.[42]

Jeewanu protocells Main article: Jeewanu Surfactant molecules organized on an air – water interface

Jeewanu protocells are artificial chemical debris that possess cell-like construction and seem to have some useful living houses.[44] First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and fundamental organics while exposed to sunlight, it is nonetheless reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of semipermeable membrane, amino acids, phospholipids, carbohydrates and RNA-like molecules.[44][45] However, the nature and homes of the Jeewanu is still clarified.[44][45][46]

In a an identical synthesis experiment a frozen mixture of water, methanol, ammonia and carbon monoxide was uncovered to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This combination yielded huge quantities of organic material that self-organised to form globules or vesicles when immersed in water.[47] The investigating scientist regarded as those globules to resemble cellular membranes that enclose and listen the chemistry of lifestyles, separating their internal from the outside international. The globules had been between 10 to Forty micrometres (0.00039 to 0.00157 in), or about the size of crimson blood cells. Remarkably, the globules fluoresced, or glowed, when exposed to UV light. Absorbing UV and changing it into seen light in this way was considered one possible manner of providing energy to a primitive cellular. If such globules played a job in the starting place of lifestyles, the fluorescence may have been a precursor to primitive photosynthesis. Such fluorescence also supplies the receive advantages of performing as a sunscreen, diffusing any harm that differently could be inflicted through UV radiation. Such a protective function would were vital for life on the early Earth, since the ozone layer, which blocks out the sun's most destructive UV rays, didn't form till after photosynthetic existence started to supply oxygen.[48]

Bio-like constructions

The synthesis of 3 kinds of "jeewanu" were reported; two of them were natural, and the other was inorganic. Other identical inorganic buildings have also been produced. The investigating scientist (V. O. Kalinenko) referred to them as "bio-like structures" and "artificial cells". Formed in distilled water (as well as on agar gel) below the influence of an electrical field, they lack protein, amino acids, purine or pyrimidine bases, and likely enzyme activities. According to NASA researchers, "presently known scientific principles of biology and biochemistry cannot account for living inorganic units" and "the postulated existence of these living units has not been proved".[46]

Ethics and controversy

Protocell research has created controversy and opposing reviews, including critics of the imprecise definition of "artificial life".[49] The introduction of a basic unit of existence is the maximum urgent moral concern, despite the fact that the maximum standard fear about protocells is their attainable danger to human well being and the setting thru uncontrolled replication.[50]

References

^ a b c d .mw-parser-output cite.quotationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .quotation qquotes:"\"""\"""'""'".mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:linear-gradient(clear,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:linear-gradient(clear,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:linear-gradient(transparent,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")appropriate 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:assist.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:linear-gradient(clear,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;colour:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflinkfont-weight:inheritChen, Irene A.; Walde, Peter (July 2010). "From Self-Assembled Vesicles to Protocells". Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2 (7): a002170. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a002170. PMC 2890201. PMID 20519344. ^ a b Garwood, Russell J. (2012). "Patterns In Palaeontology: The first 3 billion years of evolution". Palaeontology Online. 2 (11): 1–14. Retrieved June 25, 2015. ^ National Science Foundation (2013). "Exploring Life's Origins – Protocells". Retrieved 2014-03-18. ^ a b c d Chen, Irene A. (8 December 2006). "The Emergence of Cells During the Origin of Life". Science. 314 (5805): 1558–59. doi:10.1126/science.1137541. PMID 17158315. ^ a b c d Zimmer, Carl (26 June 2004). "What Came Before DNA?". Discover Magazine: 1–5. ^ Rasmussen, Steen (2 July 2014). "Scientists Create Possible Precursor to Life". A Letters Journal Exploring the Frontiers of Physics. 107 (2). Astrobiology Web. Retrieved 2014-10-24. ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell (6 ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 978-1317563754. Retrieved 2018-06-15. ^ Deamer, D.W.; Dworkin, J.P. (2005). "Chemistry and Physics of Primitive Membranes". Top. Curr. Chem. Topics in Current Chemistry. 259: 1–27. doi:10.1007/b136806. ISBN 3-540-27759-5. ^ Walde, P (2006). "Surfactant Assemblies and their various possible roles for the origin(s) of life". Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 36 (2): 109–50. Bibcode:2006OLEB...36..109W. doi:10.1007/s11084-005-9004-3. hdl:20.500.11850/24036. PMID 16642266. S2CID 8928298. ^ Sakuma, Yuka; Imai, Masayuki (2015). "From Vesicles to Protocells: The Roles of Amphiphilic Molecules". Life. 5 (1): 651–75. doi:10.3390/life5010651. PMC 4390873. PMID 25738256. ^ Marshall, Michael (14 December 2020). "He may have found the key to the origins of life. So why have so few heard of him? - Hungarian biologist Tibor Gánti is an obscure figure. Now, more than a decade after his death, his ideas about how life began are finally coming to fruition". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 15 December 2020. ^ Hugues Bersini (2011). "Minimal cell: the computer scientist's point of view". In Muriel Gargaud; Purificación López-Garcìa; Hervé Martin (eds.). Origins and Evolution of Life: An Astrobiological Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9781139494595. ^ Van Segbroeck S, Nowé A, Lenaerts T (2009). "Stochastic simulation of the chemoton". Artif Life. 15 (2): 213–226. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.8949. doi:10.1162/artl.2009.15.2.15203. PMID 19199383. S2CID 10634307. ^ Hoenigsberg HF (2007). "From geochemistry and biochemistry to prebiotic evolution...we necessarily enter into Gánti's fluid automata". Genet Mol Res. 6 (2): 358–373. PMID 17624859. ^ Shapiro, Robert (12 February 2007). "A Simpler Origin for Life". Scientific American. 296 (6): 46–53. Bibcode:2007SciAm.296f..46S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0607-46. PMID 17663224. ^ Vodopich, Darrell S.; Moore., Randy (2002). "The Importance of Membranes". Biology Laboratory Manual, 6/a. McGraw-Hill. Retrieved 2014-03-17. ^ Chang, Thomas Ming Swi (2007). Artificial cells : biotechnology, nanomedicine, regenerative drugs, blood substitutes, bioencapsulation, mobile/stem cell remedy. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-270-576-1. ^ Knowles, JR (1980). "Enzyme-catalyzed phosphoryl transfer reactions". Annu. Rev. Biochem. 49: 877–919. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.004305. PMID 6250450. ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, MA: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-250882-7. ^ a b Clavin, Whitney (13 March 2014). "How Did Life Arise? Fuel Cells May Have Answers". NASA. ^ Walsby, AE (1994). "Gas vesicles". Microbiological Reviews. 58 (1): 94–144. doi:10.1128/MMBR.58.1.94-144.1994. PMC 372955. PMID 8177173. ^ Szostak, Jack W. (3 September 2004). "Battle of the Bubbles May Have Sparked Evolution". Howard Hughes Medical Institute. ^ a b National Science Foundation (2013). "Membrane Lipids of Past and Present". Exploring Life's Origins Project – A timeline of Life's Evolution. Retrieved 2014-03-17. ^ Douliez, Jean-Paul; Zhendre, Vanessa; Grélard, Axelle; Dufourc, Erick J. (24 November 2014). "Aminosilane/Oleic Acid Vesicles as Model Membranes of Protocells". Langmuir. 30 (49): 14717–24. doi:10.1021/la503908z. PMID 25420203. ^ "Peptide glue may have held first protocell components together". ^ Kamat, Neha P.; Tobé, Sylvia; Hill, Ian T.; Szostak, Jack W. (2015). "Electrostatic Localization of RNA to Protocell Membranes by Cationic Hydrophobic Peptides". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 54 (40): 11735–39. doi:10.1002/anie.201505742. PMC 4600236. PMID 26223820. ^ a b Switek, Brian (13 February 2012). "Debate bubbles over the origin of life". Nature –!News. ^ Szostak, Jack W. (4 June 2008). "Researchers Build Model Protocell Capable of Copying DNA". HHMI News. Howard Hughes Medical Institute. ^ Cohen, Philip (23 October 2003). "Clay's matchmaking could have sparked life". New Scientist. Journal reference: Science (vol 302, p 618 ) ^ a b Stone, Howard A. (7 February 2011). "Clay-armored bubbles may have formed first protocells". Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. ^ Jia, Tony Z.; Chandru, Kuhan; Hongo, Yayoi; Afrin, Rehana; Usui, Tomohiro; Myojo, Kunihiro; Cleaves, H. James (22 July 2019). "Membraneless polyester microdroplets as primordial compartments at the origins of life". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (32): 15830–35. doi:10.1073/pnas.1902336116. PMC 6690027. PMID 31332006. ^ Tokyo Institute of Technology (23 July 2019). "ELSI scientists discover new chemistry that may help explain the origins of cellular life – Chemists find simplest organic molecules can self-assemble to give cell-like structures under early Earth conditions". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 23 July 2019. ^ Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. (March 1977). "The concept of cellular evolution". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 10 (1): 1–6. Bibcode:1977JMolE..10....1W. doi:10.1007/BF01796132. PMID 903983. S2CID 24613906. ^ Gyles, C.; Boerlin, P. (2013-12-06). "Horizontally Transferred Genetic Elements and Their Role in Pathogenesis of Bacterial Disease". Veterinary Pathology. 51 (2): 328–40. doi:10.1177/0300985813511131. ISSN 0300-9858. PMID 24318976. S2CID 206510894. ^ Müller, A. W. (June 2006). "Re-creating an RNA world". Cell Mol Life Sci. 63 (11): 1278–93. doi:10.1007/s00018-006-6047-1. PMID 16649141. S2CID 36021694. ^ Ma, Wentao; Yu, Chunwu; Zhang, Wentao; Hu., Jiming (Nov 2007). "Nucleotide synthetase ribozymes may have emerged first in the RNA world". RNA. 13 (11): 2012–19. doi:10.1261/rna.658507. PMC 2040096. PMID 17878321. ^ Demanèche, S; Bertolla, F; Buret, F; et al. (August 2001). "Laboratory-scale evidence for lightning-mediated gene transfer in soil". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67 (8): 3440–44. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.8.3440-3444.2001. PMC 93040. PMID 11472916. ^ Neumann, E; Schaefer-Ridder, M; Wang, Y; Hofschneider, PH (1982). "Gene transfer into mouse lyoma cells by electroporation in high electric fields". EMBO J. 1 (7): 841–45. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1982.tb01257.x. PMC 553119. PMID 6329708. ^ Litschel, Thomas; Ganzinger, Kristina A.; Movinkel, Torgeir; Heymann, Michael; Robinson, Tom; Hannes Mutschler; Schwille, Petra (2018). "Freeze-thaw cycles induce content exchange between cell-sized lipid vesicles". New Journal of Physics. 20 (5): 055008. Bibcode:2018NJPh...20e5008L. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/aabb96. ISSN 1367-2630. ^ a b Norris, V.; Raine, D.J. (October 1998). "A fission-fussion origin for life". Orig Life Evol Biosph. 28 (4): 523–37. doi:10.1023/A:1006568226145. PMID 9742727. S2CID 24682163. ^ Tsuji, Gakushi; Fujii, Satoshi; Sunami, Takeshi; Yomo, Tetsuya (2016-01-19). "Sustainable proliferation of liposomes compatible with inner RNA replication". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (3): 590–95. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113..590T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516893113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4725462. PMID 26711996. ^ a b "Scientists Create Artificial Cell Membranes". Astrobiology Magazine. 4 October 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-07. ^ a b Matosevic, Sandro; Paegel, Brian M. (29 September 2013). "Layer-by-layer cell membrane assembly". Nature Chemistry. 5 (11): 958–63. Bibcode:2013NatCh...5..958M. doi:10.1038/nchem.1765. PMC 4003896. PMID 24153375. ^ a b c Grote, M (September 2011). "Jeewanu, or the 'particles of life'" (PDF). Journal of Biosciences. 36 (4): 563–70. doi:10.1007/s12038-011-9087-0. PMID 21857103. S2CID 19551399. Archived from the unique (PDF) on 2014-03-23. ^ a b Gupta, V. K.; Rai, R. K. (2013). "Histochemical localisation of RNA-like material in photochemically formed self-sustaining, abiogenic supramolecular assemblies 'Jeewanu'". Int. Res. J. Of Science & Engineering. 1 (1): 1–4. ISSN 2322-0015. ^ a b Caren, Linda D.; Ponnamperuma, Cyril (1967). "A review of some experiments on the synthesis of 'Jeewanu'" (PDF). NASA Technical Memorandum X-1439. ^ Dworkin, Jason P.; Deamer, David W.; Sandford, Scott A.; Allamandola, Louis J. (30 January 2001). "Self-assembling amphiphilic molecules: Synthesis in simulated interstellar/precometary ices". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (3): 815–19. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98..815D. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.3.815. PMC 14665. PMID 11158552. ^ Mullen, L (5 September 2005). "Building Life from Star-Stuff". Astrobiology Magazine. ^ Bedau, M.; Church, G.; Rasmussen, S.; Caplan, A.; Benner, S.; Fussenegger, M.; Collins, J.; Deamer, D. (27 May 2010). "Life after the synthetic cell". Nature. 465 (7297): 422–24. Bibcode:2010Natur.465..422.. doi:10.1038/465422a. PMID 20495545. S2CID 27471255. ^ Bedau, Mark A.; Parke, Emily C. (2009). The ethics of protocells moral and social implications of creating life in the laboratory (Online ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51269-5.

External hyperlinks

"Protocells: Bridging Nonliving and Living Matter." Edited by Steen Rasmussen, Mark A. Bedau, Liaochai Chen, David Deamer, David Krakauer, Norman, H.Packard and Peter F. Stadler. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 2008. "Living Chemistry & A Natural History of Protocells." Synth-ethic: Art and Synthetic Biology Exhibition (2013) at the Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria. Kenyon, DH; Nissenbaum, A (Apr 1976). "Melanoidin and aldocyanoin microspheres: implications for chemical evolution and early precambrian micropaleontology". J. Mol. Evol. 7 (3): 245–51. Bibcode:1976JMolE...7..245K. doi:10.1007/bf01731491. PMID 778393. S2CID 2995886.vteOrigin of lifeConcepts Common descent Earliest identified lifestyles forms Last universal not unusual ancestor Protocell SymbiogenesisHypotheses Initial foundation (Abiogenesis): Clay hypothesis Iron–sulfur global Primordial sandwich Oparin-Haldane speculation Coacervation Miller–Urey experiment Primordial soup PAH world Panspermia Cosmic ancestry Peptide-RNA international Quasispecies type RNA global Ongoing foundation: Biogenesis Spontaneous eraResearch Astrobiology Evolutionary biology Paleobiology vteBiology Introduction (Genetics, Evolution) Outline History Timeline IndexHierarchy of existence Biosphere > Ecosystem > Community (Biocoenosis) > Population > Organism > Organ system > Organ > Tissue > Cell > Organelle > Biomolecular complex > Molecule (Macromolecule, Biomolecule) > AtomFoundations Cell principle Ecology Energy transformation Evolution Genetics Homeostasis TaxonomyPrinciplesEvolution Adaptation Earliest known lifestyles paperwork Function Genetic flow Gene drift Macroevolution Microevolution Mutation Natural variety SpeciationEcology Biodiversity Biological interaction Community Ecosystem Habitat Niche Population dynamics ResourcesMolecularbiology Cell signaling Development Epigenetics Gene regulation Meiosis Mitosis Post-transcriptional modificationBiochemistry Carbohydrates Enzyme Lipids Metabolism Nucleic acids Photosynthesis ProteinsSubdisciplines Anatomy Astrobiology Biogeography Biological anthropology Biomechanics Biophysics Bioinformatics Biostatistics Botany Cell biology Cellular microbiology Chemical biology Chronobiology Cognitive biology Computational biology Conservation biology Developmental biology Ecology Epidemiology Epigenetics Evolutionary biology Evolutionary developmental biology Genetics Genomics Histology Human biology Immunology Lipidology Marine biology Mathematical biology Microbiology Molecular biology Mycology Nanobiotechnology Neuroscience Nutrition Organic chemistry Paleontology Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Phycology Physiology Psychology Quantum biology Reproductive biology Sociobiology Structural biology Synthetic biology Systematics Systems biology Toxicology Virology ZoologyGlossaries Biology Botanical phrases Ecological phrases Plant morphology terms Category Commons vteSelf-replicating organic buildingsCellular lifestyles Bacteria Archaea Eukaryota Animalia Fungi Plantae Protista Incertae sedis Parakaryon myojinensis Biological darkish matterVirus dsDNA virus Giant virus ssDNA virus dsRNA virus (+)ssRNA virus (−)ssRNA virus ssRNA-RT virus dsDNA-RT virusSubviralagentsViroid Pospiviroidae AvsunviroidaeHelper-virusdependentSatellite ssRNA satellite tv for pc virus dsDNA satellite virus (Virophage) ssDNA satellite virus ssDNA satellite dsRNA satellite ssRNA satellite (Virusoid) Satellite-like nucleic acids RNA DNAOther Defective interfering particle RNA DNAPrion Mammalian prion Fungal prionNucleic acidself-replicationMobile geneticelements Mobilome Horizontal gene switch Genomic island Transposable part Class I or retrotransposon Class II or DNA transposon Plasmid Fertility Resistance Col Degradative Virulence/Ti Cryptic Cosmid Fosmid Phagemid Group I intron Group II intronOther aspects DNA replication RNA replication Chromosome Linear Circular Extrachromosomal DNA Genome Gene Gene duplication Non-coding DNA Origin of replication Replicon Endogenous viral component Provirus Prophage Endogenous retrovirus Transpoviron Repeated sequences in DNA Tandem repeat Interspersed repeatEndosymbiosis Mitochondrion Mitosome Hydrogenosome Plastid Chloroplast Chromoplast Gerontoplast Leucoplast Apicoplast Kappa organism Organs Bacteriome TrophosomeAbiogenesis Last common commonplace ancestor Earliest known existence bureaucracy ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer JeewanuSee also Organism Cell Cell department Artificial cellular Non-cellular lifestyles Synthetic virus Viral vector Helper dependent virus ?Nanobacterium ?Nanobe Cancer cell HeL. a. Clonally transmissible cancer vteLife, non-cellular lifestyles, and comparable structuresLife Archaea Bacteria Mitochondrion Plastid Eukaryota Animalia Fungi Plantae 'Protista' Parakaryon Nanobacterium (?)Non-cellular lifeVirus

Incl.: viroids,satellites,virophages,virusoids

Realms: Duplodnaviria • Monodnaviria • Riboviria • VaridnaviriaUnassigned orders: LigamenviralesUnassigned families: Alphasatellitidae • Ampullaviridae • Anelloviridae • Avsunviroidae • Baculoviridae • Bicaudaviridae • Clavaviridae • Finnlakeviridae • Fuselloviridae • Globuloviridae • Guttaviridae • Halspiviridae • Hytrosaviridae • Nimaviridae • Nudiviridae • Ovaliviridae • Plasmaviridae • Polydnaviridae • Portogloboviridae • Pospiviroidae • Spiraviridae • Thaspiviridae • Tolecusatellitidae • TristromaviridaeUnassigned genera: Deltavirus • Dinodnavirus • RhizidiovirusOther Nanobe (?)Comparablestructures Biological darkish topic Bio-like construction Cancer cellular HeL. a. Clonally transmissible cancer Cosmid Defective interfering particle Earliest identified lifestyles bureaucracy LUCA Endogenous viral part Fosmid Integrative and conjugative element Phagemid Plasmid Prion Fungal prion Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu Sulphobe Ribozyme Spiegelman's Monster Tandem repeat Transposable component Retroposon Transpoviron Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protocell&oldid=1013368847"